Martial utilized both conventional and agile Latin meters when writing topical verses about Roman urban life: grim epigrams about the Colosseum, flattery for Roman rulers of the day, as well as comic verse that poked fun at its foibles.
Catullus opened many doors for poets that followed. His revolutionary ideas about meter, language, and poetic figures proved instrumental to Horace and Virgil’s greater endeavors.
Roman Emperors
The Roman emperor held ultimate authority in Roman politics, law, finance, military service, and religious life. Although certain of the same structures that governed a kingdom remained, such as England having its Parliament and France its Estates Generals – some differences arose with Rome which relied solely on force as an instrument of government; Dr Malik states that an emperor’s legitimacy rested solely with their army and they could remove him at will, thus prompting another leader to assume power if satisfied by one leader was not found acceptable by them. An emperor had complete freedom to collect and spend as they saw fit – whether that meant calling in debt collectors, seizing property, or killing someone if necessary. But a weakling emperor could quickly find themselves overthrown; for every Augustus or Vespasian, there was likely one or more Caligula, Claudius, or Nero; with Commodus and Elagabalus even facing civil war disaster.
On the other hand, great emperors were adept at using their immense authority to consolidate the empire. They ensured the army received pay and were fierce in keeping enemies off their territory.
Military might was also used to control the economy – making sure taxes were paid, grain was delivered to storage locations, and slaves were set free – to maintain peace and build roads and structures that helped maintain stability throughout their empire.
But how did the Roman emperors manage such an expansive empire? Governing was no simple feat: misgovernment played an outsized role with weak rulers like Nero creating internal disunity when united action against external threats was required of their subjects.
Emperors also relied on an advisory team, usually consisting of their wives or mothers; it wasn’t uncommon for an influential wife or mother to serve. Hadrian, for example, became the first to deify his mother-in-law, Helena; this new goddess became one of Hadrian’s goddesses! Additionally, Hadrian created innovative legal reforms that made justice more equitable across his empire and expanded outreach programs that brought new citizens in as part of his family – giving them stakes in upholding the empire and further expanding it.
Roman Religion
Ancient Romans were religious people. Religion played an essential part in daily life and they took great care to ensure their dead ancestors’ welfare in the afterlife; many believed if not properly cared for they could cause misfortune for future generations of their family tree. Therefore, pater familias (father of the family) was particularly vigilant in keeping ancestral spirits at ease through ritual observance of omens and keeping ancestral spirits happy.
Romans were also keenly interested in Greek mythology’s gods and goddesses, although they sometimes gave them Roman names. Janus, for instance, represented two-faced gates; his two faces represented starting points, so it made sense for him to become January’s god. Juno represented marriage and childbirth – her weapon was an arrow so potent it would make men fall madly in love with her!
Other than these major deities and goddesses, there were also many minor ones. These included Cupid, the god of love; Pax, the goddess of peace; and Nemesis, the goddess of revenge. Romans also often prayed to Mars, their war god. He was especially important among soldiers who often relied upon him for protection during battle and asked that he determine who won or lost.
Modern historians may have misconstrued Roman religion as politically driven and decadent; however, such historians misunderstand its nature – not an act of manipulation, but instead, one rooted in a deep respect for gods and their ability to influence human events.
At times it was customary for Roman patriarchs to maintain shrines or statues dedicated to specific gods or goddesses in their home, often serving as an outlet for praise of these entities as part of Roman religion and culture. Romans believed in an interdependence between gods and humans as being all part of one universe.
Roman History
The Romans were an empire that conquered vast regions of Europe, built roads and aqueducts across it, and spread Latin across its reach. They experienced numerous dramatic shifts in politics and culture over their millennium-long reign as leaders of Western civilization.
Romans did not intentionally set out to build an empire; rather it emerged over time as they expanded their territory and clashed with city-states, kingdoms, and other empires. Their culture broadened due to this friction – with Greek culture, art, and religion making an appearance; additionally, Romans found new sources of inspiration within their own country that eventually culminated in their unique poetry that came to be known as Latin poetry.
Rome’s history provided a major source of its poetry, and Roman writers of the time eagerly shared their knowledge of their past through writings like Quintus Ennius’ and Publius Sextus Julius’ histories. One recurring theme among these histories was Roman longing for an earlier time when families were closer and politics less corrupt – one reason Cato became such a beloved author; his focus on hairstyles such as comb-overs, tight hosts, medical quacks, poetry rackets, and consumptive heiresses gave his works the feel of front-row seats at the Roman carnival.
Urbanization was at an all-time high during this era and cities faced growing urbanization issues that resulted in overcrowded conditions. Building codes weren’t enforced either, which led to apartments that were often overcrowded and unstable; as well as food shortages and outbreaks of plague due to overcrowding.
Romans also wrote passionately about their city, depicting it as an ever-evolving environment that reflected human life and society’s evolution. Their history could be seen as a cycle of rising and falling: first freedom then glory; when this failed wealth, vice, and corruption; followed eventually by barbarism. Thus giving rise to phrases such as ubi sunt referring to its inexorable destiny.
Roman Culture
Roman expansion brought it in contact with many cultures, one of the most notable being Greek culture in the eastern Mediterranean with its refined literature and learning, although Rome reacted somewhat negatively as many Greeks had already been defeated and enslaved by Roman soldiers. Yet Greek culture contributed significantly to transforming Roman religion, greatly informing art, especially architecture, as well as having profound effects on Roman architecture.
Poetry from this period was marked by a growing sense of patriotism and admiration for Rome’s status as a global ruler, especially among elite families. Poets like Catullus and Ovid, both from upper-class families, created works that illustrated their luxurious lifestyles while simultaneously depicting problems that caused social unrest.
As Rome moved into its late republic and early empire years, tension between wealthy landowners and common citizens increased significantly. As the gap between elite citizens and commoners widens, quality of life declines while political institutions that provided stability crumble – attempted solutions, such as reform movements by Gaius Gracchus and Tiberius, to address these problems were futile.
As the sole leader of the Roman Empire during its late Republic period, when Octavian assumed sole leadership, he attempted to make his rule acceptable to the masses by purportedly restoring political institutions from within it, while still holding onto all real power for himself – this strategy ultimately resulted in him becoming its inaugural emperor: Augustus.
Poems of Rome was designed as an anthology to inform visitors touring Rome about how specific locations have been memorialized by poets. Serving as a literary travel guide to the Eternal City, this collection contains excerpts from such classic poems as Childe Harold’s Pilgrimage by Lord Byron, Henry Wadsworth Longfellow’s Michael Angelo Fragment by Henry Wadsworth Longfellow, Sharon Morris Vanishing Point by contemporary poet Sharon Morris and Ezra Pound’s Fragment among many other noteworthy meditations on Rome sites and landmarks.
